ON THIS PAGE: You will find a drawing of the main body parts affected by this disease. Use the menu to see other pages.

The next section in this guide is Risk Factors. It explains what factors may increase the chance of developing this disease. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about screening for this type of cancer, including risks and benefits of screening. You will also learn about some of the things that a woman can do to reduce the risk of this type of cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

Prevention

Cervical cancer can often be prevented by having regular screenings to find any precancers and treat them. Preventing precancers means controlling possible risk factors, such as:

• Delaying first sexual intercourse until the late teens or older

• Limiting the number of sex partners

• Avoiding sexual intercourse with people who have had many partners

• Avoiding sexual intercourse with people who are obviously infected with genital warts or show other symptoms

• Quitting smoking

The HPV vaccine helps prevent cervical cancer caused by HPV (see Risk Factors). Gardasil 9 is available in the United States for preventing infection from HPV-16, HPV-18, and 5 other types of HPV linked with cancer. There were 2 other vaccines previously available in the United States: Cervarix and the original Gardasil. Both of these are no longer available in the United States. However, these vaccines may be in use outside of the United States.

To help prevent cervical cancer, ASCO recommends that girls receive HPV vaccination. Talk with a health care provider about the appropriate schedule for vaccination because it may vary based on many factors, including age and vaccine availability. Learn more about HPV vaccination and ASCO’s recommendations for preventing cervical cancer.

Screening is used to look for cancer or abnormalities that may become cancerous before you have any symptoms or signs. Scientists have developed, and continue to develop, tests that can be used to screen a person for specific types of cancer before signs or symptoms appear. The overall goals of cancer screening are to:

• Reduce the number of people who die from the cancer, or completely eliminate deaths from cancer

• Reduce the number of people who develop the cancer

Learn more about the basics of cancer screening.

Screening information for cervical cancer

The following tests and procedures may be used to screen for cervical cancer:

• Bimanual pelvic exam. In this examination, the doctor will check a woman’s body for any unusual changes in her cervix, uterus, vagina, ovaries, and other nearby organs. To start, the doctor will look for any changes to the woman’s vulva outside the body and then, using an instrument called a speculum to keep the vaginal walls open, the doctor will look inside the woman’s body. Some of the nearby organs are not visible during this exam, so the doctor will then insert 2 fingers of 1 hand inside the patient’s vagina while the other hand gently presses on the lower abdomen to feel the uterus and ovaries. This exam typically takes a few minutes and is done in an examination room at the doctor’s office.

• HPV test. This test is done on a sample of cells removed from the woman’s cervix, the same sample used for the Pap test (see below). This sample is tested for the strains of HPV most commonly linked to cervical cancer. HPV testing may be done by itself or combined with a Pap test. This test may also be done on a sample of cells collected from a woman’s vagina, which she can collect herself.

• Pap test. The Pap test has been the most common test for early changes in cells that can lead to cervical cancer. This test is also called a Pap smear. A Pap test involves gathering a sample of cells from the cervix. It is often done at the same time as a bimanual pelvic exam. A Pap test may be combined with an HPV test.

• Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA). VIA is a screening test that can be done with few tools and the naked eye. During VIA, a dilution of white vinegar is applied to the cervix. The health care provider then looks for abnormalities on the cervix, which will turn white when exposed to vinegar. This screening test is very useful in places where access to medical care is limited.

Screening recommendations for cervical cancer

Different organizations have looked at the scientific evidence, risks, and benefits of cervical cancer screening. These groups have developed different screening recommendations for women in the United States who have “average risk” of cervical cancer, meaning these women do not have strong risk factors for this disease.

ASCO recommends that all women receive at least 1 HPV test to screen for cervical cancer in their lifetime. Ideally, women 25 to 65 years old should receive screening with the HPV test every 5 years. Women 65 and older may stop screening if their HPV test results have been mostly negative over the previous 15 years. Sometimes, women who are 65 and older and who have tested positive for HPV may continue screening until they are 70.

Decisions about screening for cervical cancer are becoming increasingly individualized. Sometimes, screening may differ from the recommendations discussed above because of a variety of factors. Such factors include the availability of testing and follow-up options in your area, your personal risk factors, and your health history. It’s important to talk with your health care team or a health care professional knowledgeable in cervical cancer screening about how often you should receive screening and which tests are most appropriate.

Here are some questions to ask a health care professional:

• At what age should I start being screened for cervical cancer?

• Should my screening include an HPV test?  If so, how often?

• Why are you recommending these specific tests and screening schedule for me?

• At what age could I stop being regularly screened for cervical cancer?

• Do any of these recommendations change if I have had cervical dysplasia or precancer?

• Do any of recommendations change if I have HIV?

• Do any of these recommendations change if I have had a hysterectomy?

• Do any of recommendations change if I am pregnant?

• Do any of recommendations change if I have had the HPV vaccine?

• What happens if the screening shows positive or abnormal results?

All women should talk with their doctors about cervical cancer and decide on an appropriate screening schedule. For women at high risk for developing cervical cancer, screening is recommended at an earlier age and more often than for women who have an average risk of cervical cancer.

To view different groups’ national recommendations, visit the websites of ASCO, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, the American Cancer Society, the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Cancer Care Ontario, and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, and the World Health Organization. Please note that these links will take you away from this guide to other, independent websites.

The next section in this guide is Symptoms and Signs. It explains what body changes or medical problems this disease can cause. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

ON THIS PAGE: You will find a list of common tests, procedures, and scans that doctors use to find cause of the medical problem. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors use many tests to find, or diagnose, cancer. They also do tests to learn if cancer has spread to another part of the body from where it started. If this happens, it is called metastasis. For example, imaging tests can show if the cancer has spread. Imaging tests show pictures of the inside of the body. Doctors may also do tests to learn which treatments could work best.

For most types of cancer, a biopsy is the only sure way for the doctor to know whether an area of the body has cancer. In a biopsy, the doctor takes a small sample of tissue for testing in a laboratory. If a biopsy is not possible, the doctor may suggest other tests that will help make a diagnosis.

This list describes options for diagnosing this type of cancer. Not all tests listed below will be used for every person. Some or all of these tests may be helpful for your doctor to plan the treatment of your cancer. Your doctor may consider these factors when choosing a diagnostic test:

• The type of cancer suspected

• Your signs and symptoms

• Your age and medical condition

• The results of earlier medical tests

In addition to a physical examination, the following tests may be used to diagnose cervical cancer:

• Pelvic examination. In this examination, the doctor feels a woman’s uterus, vagina, ovaries, cervix, bladder, and rectum to check for any unusual changes. A Pap test is often done at the same time.

• Pap test. During a Pap test, the doctor gently scrapes the outside of the cervix and vagina, taking samples of the cells for testing.

  Improved Pap test methods have made it easier for doctors to find cancerous cells. Traditional Pap tests can be hard to read because cells can be dried out, covered with mucus or blood, or clump together on the slide.

  • The liquid-based cytology test, often referred to as ThinPrep or SurePath, transfers a thin layer of cells onto a slide after removing blood or mucus from the sample. The sample is preserved, so other tests can be done at the same time, such as the HPV test (see Prevention).

  • Computer screening, often called AutoPap or FocalPoint, uses a computer to scan the sample for abnormal cells.

• HPV typing. An HPV test is similar to a Pap test, in which the test is done on a sample of cells from the patient’s cervix. The doctor may test for HPV at the same time as a Pap test or after Pap test results show abnormal changes to the cervix. Certain strains of HPV, such as HPV-16 and HPV-18, are seen more often in women with cervical cancer and may help confirm a diagnosis. If the doctor says the HPV test is “positive,” this means the test found the presence of HPV. Many women have HPV but do not have cervical cancer, so HPV testing alone is not an accurate test for cervical cancer.

If the Pap test showed some abnormal cells and the HPV test is positive, then the doctor may suggest 1 or more of the following diagnostic tests:

• Colposcopy. The doctor may do a colposcopy to check the cervix for abnormal areas. Colposcopy can also be used to help guide a biopsy of the cervix. A special instrument called a colposcope is used. The colposcope magnifies the cells of the cervix and vagina, similar to a microscope. It gives the doctor a lighted, magnified view of the tissues of the vagina and the cervix. The colposcope is not inserted into the woman’s body and the examination is not painful. It can be done in the doctor's office and has no side effects. It can be done on pregnant women.

• Biopsy. A biopsy is the removal of a small amount of tissue for examination under a microscope. Other tests can suggest that cancer is present, but only a biopsy can make a definite diagnosis. A pathologist then analyzes the sample(s). A pathologist is a doctor who specializes in interpreting laboratory tests and evaluating cells, tissues, and organs to diagnose disease. If the lesion is small, the doctor may remove all of it during the biopsy. There are several types of biopsies:

  • One common method uses an instrument to pinch off small pieces of cervical tissue.

  • Sometimes, the doctor wants to check an area inside the opening of the cervix that cannot be seen during a colposcopy. To do this, the doctor uses a procedure called endocervical curettage (ECC). The doctor uses a small, spoon-shaped instrument called a curette to scrape a small amount of tissue from inside the cervical opening.

  • A loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) uses an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes tissue for examination in the laboratory. A LEEP may also be used to remove a precancer or an early-stage cancer.

  • Conization (a cone biopsy) removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Conization may be done as treatment to remove a precancer or an early-stage cancer.

  The first 3 types of biopsy are usually done in the doctor's office using a local anesthetic to numb the area. There may be some bleeding and other discharge. Some women experience discomfort similar to menstrual cramps. Conization is done under a general or local anesthetic and may be done in the doctor's office or the hospital.

  If the biopsy shows that cervical cancer is present, the doctor will refer the woman to a gynecologic oncologist, who specializes in treating this type of cancer. The specialist may suggest additional tests to see if the cancer has spread beyond the cervix.
  

• Pelvic examination under anesthesia.  In cases where it is necessary for treatment planning, the specialist may re-examine the pelvic area while the patient is under anesthesia to see if the cancer has spread to any organs near the cervix, including the uterus, vagina, bladder, or rectum.

• X-ray. An x-ray is a way to create a picture of the structures inside of the body using a small amount of radiation. An intravenous urography is a type of x-ray that is used to view the kidneys and bladder.

• Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan. A CT scan creates a 3-dimensional picture of the inside of the body using x-rays taken from different angles. A computer combines these images into a detailed, cross-sectional view that shows any abnormalities or tumors. A CT scan can be used to measure the tumor’s size. Sometimes, a special dye called a contrast medium is given before the scan to provide better detail on the image. This dye can be injected into a patient’s vein or given as a pill to swallow.

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI uses magnetic fields, not x-rays, to produce detailed images of the body. MRI can be used to measure the tumor’s size. A special dye called a contrast medium is given before the scan to create a clearer picture. This dye can be injected into a patient’s vein or given as a pill to swallow.

• Positron emission tomography (PET) or PET-CT scan. A PET scan is usually combined with a CT scan (see above), called a PET-CT scan. However, you may hear your doctor refer to this procedure just as a PET scan. A PET scan is a way to create pictures of organs and tissues inside the body. A small amount of a radioactive sugar substance is injected into the patient’s body. This sugar substance is taken up by cells that use the most energy. Because cancer tends to use energy actively, it absorbs more of the radioactive substance. A scanner then detects this substance to produce images of the inside of the body.

• Cystoscopy. A cystoscopy is a procedure that allows the doctor to view the inside of the bladder and urethra (the canal that carries urine from the bladder) with a thin, lighted tube called a cystoscope. The person may be sedated as the tube is inserted in the urethra. A cystoscopy is used to determine whether cancer has spread to the bladder.

• Proctoscopy (also called a sigmoidoscopy). A proctoscopy is a procedure that allows the doctor to see the colon and rectum with a thin, lighted, flexible tube called a sigmoidoscope. The person may be sedated as the tube is inserted in the rectum. A proctoscopy is used to see if the cancer has spread to the rectum.

• Laparoscopy. A laparoscopy is a procedure that allows the doctor to see the abdominal area with a thin, lighted, flexible tube called a laparoscope. The person is usually sedated because the tube is inserted through an incision in the body.

After diagnostic tests are done, your doctor will review all of the results with you. If the diagnosis is cancer, these results also help the doctor describe the cancer. This is called staging.

The next section in this guide is Stages. It explains the system doctors use to describe the extent of the disease. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn about the different treatments doctors use for people with this type of cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

This section tells you the treatments that are the standard of care for this type of cancer. “Standard of care” means the best treatments known. When making treatment plan decisions, patients are encouraged to consider clinical trials as an option. A clinical trial is a research study that tests a new approach to treatment. Doctors want to learn whether the new treatment is safe, effective, and possibly better than the standard treatment. Clinical trials can test a new drug, a new combination of standard treatments, or new doses of standard drugs or other treatments. Your doctor can help you consider all your treatment options. To learn more about clinical trials, see the About Clinical Trials and Latest Research sections.

Treatment overview

In cancer care, different types of doctors often work together to create a patient’s overall treatment plan that combines different types of treatments. This is called a multidisciplinary team. Cancer care teams include a variety of other health care professionals, such as physician assistants, oncology nurses, social workers, pharmacists, counselors, dietitians, and others.

Descriptions of the most common treatment options for cervical cancer are listed below. The treatment of cervical cancer depends on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, possible side effects, and the woman’s preferences and overall health. Your care plan may also include treatment for symptoms and side effects, an important part of cancer care. Take time to learn about all of your treatment options and be sure to ask questions about things that are unclear. Talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment and what you can expect while receiving the treatment. Learn more about making treatment decisions.

Women with cervical cancer may have concerns about if or how their treatment may affect their sexual function and ability to have children, called fertility, and these topics should be discussed with the health care team before treatment begins. A woman who is pregnant should talk with her doctor about how treatments could affect both her and the unborn child. Treatment may be able to be delayed until after the baby is born.

Surgery

Surgery is the removal of the tumor and some surrounding healthy tissue during an operation. A gynecologic oncologist is a doctor who specializes in treating gynecologic cancer using surgery. For cervical cancer that has not spread beyond the cervix, these procedures are often used:

• Conization is the use of the same procedure as a cone biopsy (see Diagnosis) to remove all of the abnormal tissue. It can be used to remove cervical cancer that can only be seen with a microscope, called microinvasive cancer.

• LEEP is the use of an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes the tissue. It can be used to remove microinvasive cervical cancer.

• A hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus and cervix. Hysterectomy can be either simple or radical. A simple hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus and cervix. A radical hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus, cervix, upper vagina, and the tissue around the cervix. A radical hysterectomy also includes an extensive pelvic lymph node dissection, which means lymph nodes are removed.

• If needed, surgery may include a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. This is the removal of both fallopian tubes and both ovaries. It is done at the same time as a hysterectomy.

• Radical trachelectomy is a surgical procedure in which the cervix is removed, but the uterus is left intact.. It includes pelvic lymph node dissection. This surgery may be used for young patients who want to preserve their fertility. This procedure has become an acceptable alternative to a hysterectomy for some patients.

For cervical cancer that has spread beyond the cervix, this procedure may be used:

• Exenteration is the removal of the uterus, vagina, lower colon, rectum, or bladder if cervical cancer has spread to these organs after radiation therapy (see below). Exenteration is rarely required. It is most often used for some people whose cancer has come back after radiation treatment.

Complications or side effects from surgery vary depending on the extent of the procedure. Occasionally, patients experience significant bleeding, infection, or damage to the urinary and intestinal systems. Before surgery, talk with your health care team about the possible side effects from the specific surgery you will have.

Because these surgical procedures affect a woman's sexual health, women should talk with their doctor about their symptoms and concerns in detail before the surgery. The doctor may be able to help reduce the side effects of surgery and provide support resources on coping with any changes. If extensive surgical procedures have affected sexual function, other surgical procedures can be used to make an artificial vagina.

Learn more about the basics of cancer surgery.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is the use of high-energy x-rays or other particles to destroy cancer cells. A doctor who specializes in giving radiation therapy to treat cancer is called a radiation oncologist. Radiation therapy may be given alone, before surgery, or instead of surgery to shrink the tumor. Many women may be treated with a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy (see below).

The most common type of radiation treatment is called external-beam radiation therapy, which is radiation given from a machine outside the body. When radiation treatment is given using implants, it is called internal radiation therapy or brachytherapy. A radiation therapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of treatments given over a set period of time that combines external and internal radiation treatments. This combined approach often is the most effective.

Side effects from radiation therapy may include fatigue, mild skin reactions, upset stomach, and loose bowel movements. Side effects of internal radiation therapy may include abdominal pain and bowel obstruction, although it is uncommon. Most side effects usually go away soon after treatment is finished. After radiation therapy, the vaginal area may lose elasticity, so some women may also want to use a vaginal dilator, which is a plastic or rubber cylinder that is inserted into the vagina to prevent narrowing. Women who have received external-beam radiation therapy will lose the ability to become pregnant, and unless the ovaries have been surgically moved out of the pelvis, premenopausal women will enter menopause.

Sometimes, doctors advise their patients not to have sexual intercourse during radiation therapy. Women may resume normal sexual activity within a few weeks after treatment if they feel ready.

Learn more about the basics of radiation therapy or read the American Society for Radiation Oncology’s pamphlet, Radiation Therapy for Gynecologic Cancers (PDF).

Chemotherapy (updated 10/2017)

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells, usually by ending the cancer cells’ ability to grow and divide. Chemotherapy is given by a gynecologic oncologist or medical oncologist, doctors who specialize in treating cancer with medication.

Systemic chemotherapy gets into the bloodstream to reach cancer cells throughout the body. Common ways to give chemotherapy include an intravenous (IV) tube placed into a vein using a needle or in a pill or capsule that is swallowed (orally).

A chemotherapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of cycles given over a set period of time. A patient may receive 1 drug at a time or combinations of different drugs given at the same time.

For early stages of cervical cancer, a combination of radiation therapy and low-dose chemotherapy is often used (see above). The goal of chemotherapy when given with radiation therapy is to increase the effectiveness of the radiation treatment. This combination is given to control the cancer in the pelvis with the intent to cure without surgery. It may also be given to destroy microscopic cancer that might remain after surgery.

Chemotherapy may be used in higher doses to treat cervical cancer that has come back, called recurrent cancer, or for those patients whose cancer has spread beyond the pelvis, called metastatic disease. A platinum-based combination therapy is used, and adding the targeted therapy bevacizumab (Avastin) to this combination has been shown to help women with later stages of cervical cancer to live longer. A drug similar to bevacizumab, called bevacizumab-awwb (Mvasi), received FDA approval in 2017.

Although chemotherapy can be given orally (by mouth), all the drugs used to treat cervical cancer are given intravenously (IV). IV chemotherapy is either injected directly into a vein or given through a thin tube called a catheter, which is a tube temporarily put into a large vein to make injections easier.

The side effects of chemotherapy depend on the woman and the dose used, but they can include fatigue, risk of infection, nausea and vomiting, hair loss, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. These side effects usually go away after treatment is finished.

Rarely, specific drugs may cause some hearing loss. Others may cause kidney damage. Patients may be given extra fluid intravenously to protect their kidneys. Talk with your doctor about the possible short-term and long-term side effects based on the drugs and dosages you’ll be receiving.

Learn more about the basics of chemotherapy and preparing for treatment. The medications used to treat cancer are continually being evaluated. Talking with your doctor is often the best way to learn about the medications prescribed for you, their purpose, and their potential side effects or interactions with other medications. Learn more about your prescriptions by using searchable drug databases.

Getting care for symptoms and side effects

Cancer and its treatment often cause side effects. In addition to treatments intended to slow, stop, or eliminate the cancer, an important part of cancer care is relieving a woman’s symptoms and side effects. This approach is called palliative or supportive care, and it includes supporting the patient with her physical, emotional, and social needs.

Palliative care is any treatment that focuses on reducing symptoms, improving quality of life, and supporting patients and their families. Any person, regardless of age or type and stage of cancer, may receive palliative care. It works best when palliative care is started as early as needed in the cancer treatment process. Women often receive treatment for the cancer at the same time that they receive treatment to ease side effects. In fact, patients who receive both at the same time often have less severe symptoms, better quality of life, and report they are more satisfied with treatment.

Palliative treatments vary widely and often include medication, nutritional changes, relaxation techniques, emotional support, and other therapies. You may also receive palliative treatments similar to those meant to eliminate the cancer, such as chemotherapy, surgery, or radiation therapy. Talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment in your treatment plan.

Before treatment begins, talk with your health care team about the possible side effects of your specific treatment plan and palliative care options. During and after treatment, be sure to tell your doctor or another health care team member if you are experiencing a problem so it can be addressed as quickly as possible. Learn more about palliative care. 

Treatment options by stage

Radiation therapy alone or surgery is generally used for a small tumor. These treatments have been shown to be equally effective at treating early-stage cervical cancer. Chemoradiation (a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy) is generally used for women with a larger tumor or if the lymph nodes have cancer cells. Commonly, radiation therapy and chemotherapy are used after surgery, when the patient is at a high risk for the cancer coming back or if the cancer has spread.

Metastatic cervical cancer

If cancer spreads to another part in the body from where it started, doctors call it metastatic cancer. If this happens, it is a good idea to talk with doctors who have experience in treating it. Doctors can have different opinions about the best standard treatment plan. Also, clinical trials might be an option. Learn more about getting a second opinion before starting treatment, so you are comfortable with your chosen treatment plan.

Chemotherapy and surgery may be used to treat or remove newly affected areas in both the pelvic area and other parts of the body. Palliative care will also be important to help relieve symptoms and side effects, especially with radiation therapy to relieve pain and other symptoms.

For most women, a diagnosis of metastatic cancer is very stressful and, at times, difficult to bear. Patients and their families are encouraged to talk about the way they are feeling with doctors, nurses, social workers, or other members of the health care team. It may also be helpful to talk with other patients, including through a support group.

Remission and the chance of recurrence

A remission is when cancer cannot be detected in the body and there are no symptoms. This may also be called having “no evidence of disease” or NED.

A remission may be temporary or permanent. This uncertainty causes many people to worry that the cancer will come back. While many remissions are permanent, it’s important to talk with your doctor about the possibility of the cancer returning. Understanding your risk of recurrence and the treatment options may help you feel more prepared if the cancer does return. Learn more about coping with the fear of recurrence.

If the cancer does return after the original treatment, it is called recurrent cancer. Recurrent cancer may come back in the same place (called a local recurrence), nearby (regional recurrence), or in another place (distant recurrence).

When this occurs, a new cycle of testing will begin again to learn as much as possible about the recurrence. After this testing is done, you and your doctor will talk about your treatment options. Often the treatment plan will include the treatments described above, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, but they may be used in a different combination or given at a different pace. Your doctor may suggest clinical trials that are studying new ways to treat this type of recurrent cancer. Whichever treatment plan you choose, palliative care will be important for relieving symptoms and side effects.

Women with recurrent cancer often experience emotions such as disbelief or fear. Patients are encouraged to talk with their health care team about these feelings and ask about support services to help them cope. Learn more about dealing with cancer recurrence.

If treatment doesn’t work

Recovery from cancer is not always possible. If the cancer cannot be cured or controlled, the disease may be called advanced or terminal.

This diagnosis is stressful, and for many people, advanced cancer is difficult to discuss. However, it is important to have open and honest conversations with your doctor and health care team to express your feelings, preferences, and concerns. The health care team is there to help, and many team members have special skills, experience, and knowledge to support patients and their families. Making sure a person is physically comfortable and free from pain is extremely important.

Women who have advanced cancer and who are expected to live less than 6 months may want to consider a type of palliative care called hospice care. Hospice care is designed to provide the best possible quality of life for people who are near the end of life. You and your family are encouraged to talk with the health care team about hospice care options, which include hospice care at home, a special hospice center, or other health care locations. Nursing care and special equipment can make staying at home a workable option for many families. Learn more about advanced cancer care planning.

After the death of a loved one, many people need support to help them cope with the loss. Learn more about grief and loss.

The next section in this guide is About Clinical Trials. It offers more information about research studies that are focused on finding better ways to care for people with cancer. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about the scientific research being done now to learn more about this type of cancer and how to treat it. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors are working to learn more about cervical cancer, ways to prevent it, how to best treat it, and how to provide the best care to women diagnosed with this disease. The following areas of research may include new options for patients through clinical trials. Always talk with your doctor about the best diagnostic and treatment options for you.

• Improved detection and screening methods. Because cervical cancer is highly treatable when detected early, researchers are developing better ways to detect precancer and cervical cancer. For example, fluorescent spectroscopy is the use of fluorescent light to detect changes in precancerous cervix cells.

• HPV prevention. As discussed in the Screening and Prevention section, HPV vaccines help prevent infection from the HPV strains that cause most cervical cancer. Gardasil is also approved by the FDA for boys and men ages 9 through 26 to prevent genital warts. Researchers are looking at the impact of the HPV vaccine on boys to reduce the risk of HPV transmission.

• Immunotherapy. Immunotherapy, also called biologic therapy, is designed to boost the body’s natural defenses to fight the cancer. It uses materials made either by the body or in a laboratory to improve, target, or restore immune system function. For women who already have cervical cancer, a therapeutic vaccine is being developed. These vaccines help "train" the immune system to recognize cervical cancer cells and destroy them. Learn more about immunotherapy.

• Fertility-preserving surgery. Research continues to focus on improving surgical techniques and finding out which patients with cervical cancer can be treated successfully without losing their ability to have children. Learn more about fertility preservation.

• Targeted therapy. Targeted therapy is a treatment that targets the cancer’s specific genes, proteins, or the tissue environment that contributes to cancer growth and survival. Drugs called angiogenesis inhibitors that block the action of a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have been shown to help women live longer if they have cervical cancer that has spread to other parts of the body. VEGF promotes angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels. Because a tumor needs the nutrients delivered by blood vessels to grow and spread, the goal of angiogenesis inhibitors is to “starve” the tumor. Learn more about angiogenesis inhibitors and targeted treatments.

• Combination therapy. Some clinical trials are exploring different combinations of immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

• Palliative care. Clinical trials are underway to find better ways of reducing symptoms and side effects of current cervical cancer treatments to improve patients’ comfort and quality of life.

Looking for More About Latest Research?

If you would like additional information about the latest areas of research regarding cervical cancer, explore these related items that take you outside of this guide:

• To find clinical trials specific to your diagnosis, talk with your doctor or search online clinical trial databases now.

• Visit the website of the Conquer Cancer Foundation to find out how to help support cancer research. Please note that this link takes you to a separate ASCO website. 

The next section in this guide is Coping with Treatment. It offers some guidance in how to cope with the physical, emotional, and social changes that cancer and its treatment can bring. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about your medical care after cancer treatment is completed, and why this follow-up care is important. Use the menu to see other pages.

Care for women diagnosed with cervical cancer doesn’t end when active treatment has finished. Your health care team will continue to check to make sure the cancer has not returned, manage any side effects, and monitor your overall health. This is called follow-up care.

Your follow-up care may include regular physical examinations, medical tests, or both. Doctors want to keep track of your recovery in the months and years ahead.

Learn more about the importance of follow-up care.

Watching for recurrence

One goal of follow-up care is to check for a recurrence. Cancer recurs because small areas of cancer cells may remain undetected in the body. Over time, these cells may increase in number until they show up on test results or cause signs or symptoms. During follow-up care, a doctor familiar with your medical history can give you personalized information about your risk of recurrence. Your doctor will ask specific questions about your health. Some people may have blood tests or imaging tests done as part of regular follow-up care, but testing recommendations depend on several factors including the type and stage of cancer originally diagnosed and the types of treatment given.

The anticipation before having a follow-up test or waiting for test results can add stress to you or a family member. This is sometimes called “scan-xiety.” Learn more about how to cope with this type of stress.

Managing long-term and late side effects

Most people expect to experience side effects when receiving treatment. However, it is often surprising to survivors that some side effects may linger beyond the treatment period. These are called long-term side effects. Other side effects called late effects may develop months or even years afterwards. Long-term and late effects can include both physical and emotional changes.

Talk with your doctor about your risk of developing such side effects based on the type of cancer, your individual treatment plan, and your overall health. If you had a treatment known to cause specific late effects, you may have certain physical examinations, scans, or blood tests to help find and manage them.

Keeping personal health records

You and your doctor should work together to develop a personalized follow-up care plan. Be sure to discuss any concerns you have about your future physical or emotional health. ASCO offers forms to help create a treatment summary to keep track of the cancer treatment you received and develop a survivorship care plan when treatment is completed.

This is also a good time to decide who will lead your follow-up care. Some survivors continue to see their oncologist, while others transition back to the care of their family doctor or another health care professional. This decision depends on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, side effects, health insurance rules, and your personal preferences.

If a doctor who was not directly involved in your cancer care will lead your follow-up care, be sure to share your cancer treatment summary and survivorship care plan forms with him or her and with all future health care providers. Details about your cancer treatment are very valuable to the health care professionals who will care for you throughout your lifetime.

The next section in this guide is Survivorship. It describes how to cope with challenges in everyday life after a cancer diagnosis. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide. 

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some questions to ask your doctor or other members of your health care team, to help you better understand your diagnosis, treatment plan, and overall care. Use the menu to see other pages.

Talking often with your health care team is important to make informed decisions about your health care. These suggested questions are a starting point to help you learn more about your cancer care and treatment. You are also encouraged to ask additional questions that are important to you. You may want to print this list and bring it to your next appointment, or download Cancer.Net’s free mobile app for a digital list and other interactive tools to manage your care.

Questions to ask about prevention

• Should I receive the HPV vaccine?

• Should I be tested for HPV infection? What does this mean?

• How often should I have a Pap test?

Questions to ask after a diagnosis of cervical cancer or precancer

• What is my diagnosis, and what does it mean?

• What is the stage of the precancer or cancer? What does this mean?

• Can you explain my pathology report (laboratory test results) to me?

Questions to ask about choosing a treatment and managing side effects

• What are my treatment options?

• What clinical trials are available for me? Where are they located, and how do I find out more about them?

• What treatment plan do you recommend? Why?

• What is the goal of each treatment? Is it to eliminate the cancer, help me feel better, or both?

• Who will be part of my health care team, and what does each member do?

• Who will be leading my overall treatment?

• What are the possible side effects of this treatment, both in the short term and the long term?

• How often should I dilate the vagina after radiation therapy? For how long?

• Will this treatment affect my ability to become pregnant in the future? Should I talk with a fertility expert before starting treatment?

• How will this treatment affect my daily life? Will I be able to work, exercise, and perform my usual activities?

• If I’m worried about managing the costs of cancer care, who can help me?

• Should I stop having sex during treatment?

• Will my sex life be affected after treatment?

• What can I do to stay healthy as possible during and after treatment?

• Whom should I call with questions or problems?

Questions to ask about planning follow-up care

• What is the chance that the cancer will come back? Should I watch for specific signs or symptoms?

• What long-term side effects or late effects are possible based on the cancer treatment I received?

• What follow-up tests will I need, and how often will I need them?

• How do I get a treatment summary and survivorship care plan to keep in my personal records?
  

• Who will be coordinating my follow-up care?

• What survivorship support services are available to me? To my family?

The next section in this guide is Additional Resources. It offers some more resources on this website beyond this guide that may be helpful to you. You may use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.